AJCC
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

American Journal of Critical Care. 2003;12: 113-118
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Respond to This Article
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Right arrow Take the CE Test
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Grap, M. J.
Right arrow Articles by Bryant, S.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Grap, M. J.
Right arrow Articles by Bryant, S.

Journal Club Feature

To receive CE credit for this article, visit the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses’ (AACN) Web site at http://www.aacn.org, click on "Education" and select "Continuing Education," or call AACN’s Fax on Demand at (800) 222-6329 and request item No. 1163.

Oral Care Interventions in Critical Care: Frequency and Documentation

By Mary Jo Grap, RN, PhD, ACNP, Cindy L. Munro, RN, PhD, ANP, Brooke Ashtiani and Sandra Bryant. From Virginia Commonwealth University School of Nursing, Richmond, Va.


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Research Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
• Background No data have been collected to describe the products, methods, and frequency of oral care needed to reduce dental plaque, oral colonization, and ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients.

• Objectives To describe the frequency of use of oral care interventions reported by nurses in several intensive care units in a large southeastern medical center.

• Methods Staff members completed a written survey describing their oral care practices, and oral care interventions were recorded from the unit’s flow sheet for the previous 24 hours for all patients at 5 randomly selected times during 1 month.

• Results Most respondents (75%) reported providing oral care 2 or 3 times daily for nonintubated patients, and 72% reported providing care 5 times daily or more for intubated patients. However, oral care was documented on the unit’s flow sheet a mean of 1.2 times per patient. Reported use of toothpaste and a toothbrush was significantly greater in nonintubated patients (P < .001), and use of a sponge toothette was significantly greater in intubated patients (P < .001). Nurses’ mean rating of oral care priority was 53.9 on a 100-point scale.

• Conclusions Despite evidence that they are ineffective for plaque removal, sponge toothettes remain the primary tool for oral care, especially in intubated patients in intensive care units. Nurses report frequent oral care interventions, but few are documented. Education and focus on good oral care strategies are required; nursing research to delineate the best procedure for all patients in intensive care units is needed.

Patients’ oral care is a key component of nursing care. Oral care is often considered primarily an intervention for patients’ comfort, a characteristic that may reduce its priority and thus its frequency. Information about the frequency and type of oral care provided to critically ill patients will guide the development of nursing interventions that may improve outcomes in these patients.

Oropharyngeal colonization is associated with several systemic diseases, including cardiovascular disease,1 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,2–4 and in the intensive care unit (ICU), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP).5 In the United States, nosocomial pneumonia ranks second in morbidity and first in mortality among nosocomial infections.6 The treatment of nosocomial pneumonia adds 5 to 7 days to the hospital stay of surviving patients and billions of dollars to healthcare costs.7,8 VAP occurs in 9% to 24% of patients with various pulmonary disorders.9 The reported mortality rate of VAP varies between 54% and 71%, and mortality is particularly high in pneumonia attributed to Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter.7,10,11

Risk factors for VAP include the presence of an endotracheal tube and continuous ventilatory support.12 It is well established that presence of an endo-tracheal tube allows the direct entry of bacteria into the pulmonary tract, impairs the cough reflex, slows the action of the mucociliary escalator, and promotes excessive secretion of mucus.12 Continuous ventilatory support maximizes the risk for nosocomial pneumonia.7 Additional risk factors include enteral nutrition therapy,13–15 lack of elevation of the head of the bed and the patient’s position,16,17 and dental plaque.

One of the most critical risk factors for the development of nosocomial pneumonia in patients who are receiving continuous ventilatory support (ie, VAP) is colonization of the oropharynx.18,19 Several factors increase bacterial colonization of the oropharynx in critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Within 48 hours of hospital admission, the composition of the oropharyngeal flora of critically ill patients undergoes a change to predominantly gram-negative organisms, constituting a more virulent flora that includes potential VAP pathogens.20,21 Microorganisms are concentrated in dental plaque. Dental plaque may serve as a reservoir for pathogens in patients with poor oral hygiene,22 and dental plaque of patients in the ICU is colonized by potential respiratory pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.5 This process of oral colonization usually precedes pulmonary colonization, which leads to VAP. Reducing the number of microorganisms in the mouth reduces the pool of organisms available for translocation to and colonization of the lung. Previous research18 indicates that vigorous oral hygiene is necessary to reduce oral colonization. Toothbrushing is effective in reducing the number of oral microorganisms, but toothbrushing, even though it is an independent nursing action, is not routinely performed in critically ill patients.

Unfortunately, although the importance of oral care in the ICU has been reported,5,23,24 little has been determined about the effects of oral care interventions in critically ill patients. Evidence-based protocols for oral care of critically patients are not available, and oral hygiene measures are generally directed toward patients’ comfort rather than removal of microbes.25 The lack of published protocols for oral care in intubated patients has been noted in the clinical nursing literature.26 Definitive scientific studies relating oral care interventions to VAP have not been done. In a recent comprehensive research review of evidence-based practice related to strategies to prevent VAP, Hixson et al25 noted that even though oral hygiene is considered standard nursing care, it is often neglected in critically ill patients or performed by quickly swabbing the mouth. Hixson et al called for studies evaluating the effectiveness of various methods of oral care.

The purposes of this project were to describe oral care interventions reported by nurses and to determine how often these interventions are documented in medical records.


   Research Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Research Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Setting and Sample
Data were collected in the medical respiratory, surgical trauma, and neuroscience ICUs at a large southeastern academic medical center. The study was approved by the institutional review board for protection of human subjects. Two samples of subjects were included in this study: nursing care providers in the ICU and critically ill patients. ICU nursing staff participated through completion of a survey. The total number of nursing staff employed (including registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, and patient care technicians) was obtained from the nurse manager for each unit; 170 nursing care providers were surveyed.

The sample of critically ill patients was drawn from the ICU population, which is approximately 60% male and 40% female and ethnically diverse (approximately 48% African American, 47% white, and 5% of other ethnic heritage). All patients 18 years old or older present in the units on 5 randomly selected data collection days during a 1-month period were included in the sample. Data for critically ill subjects were obtained from their medical records.

Oral Care Survey
A copy of the oral care survey we designed was placed in each staff member’s unit mailbox with a description of the study and a request that the staff member complete the survey. Large envelopes were placed in each unit for return of the completed surveys. One week later, a second survey was placed in the same mailboxes (a different color of paper was used to indicate it was a second copy) with a request that staff members complete it if they had not completed the first survey. Demographic data, including position (registered nurse, licensed practical nurse, or patient care technician), years of nursing experience, years of experience in the current ICU, years of ICU nursing experience, and highest nursing education were included in the survey, but in order to maintain confidentiality of respondents, no information that could identify individuals was requested.

The survey asked how often the respondent generally performed oral care for nonintubated patients and for intubated patients. On a 100-mm analog scale (with the origin representing 0% of the time and the endpoint representing 100% of the time), respondents were asked to estimate how frequently toothbrushes, toothettes, mouthwash, isotonic sodium chloride solution, toothpaste, peroxide mixture, chlorhexidine, or other products were used in their provision of oral care to nonintubated patients. Identical questions were asked about their provision of oral care to intubated patients. Respondents were also asked to respond on a 100-mm analog scale to the question, "Considering all interventions you complete for critically ill patients, rate the priority of oral care interventions on a scale of 1–100 (1 being low priority, and 100 being highest priority)." Space was provided for respondents to write comments.

Responses to the questions about frequency of oral care were tabulated. Responses to questions about frequency of use of particular oral care products were quantified by measuring the distance in millimeters from the origin of the response line to the respondent’s mark on the line.

Frequency of Documented Interventions
At 5 randomly selected times drawn prospectively from a pool of dates during a 1-month period, oral care interventions (frequency of mouth care and type of solutions used) were recorded from the ICU flow sheet of the medical record for the previous 24 hours for all ICU patients. Demographic data, including age, sex, and ethnicity of the patients, were also collected.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Research Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Oral Care Survey
Seventy-seven healthcare providers responded for a 45% return rate. Respondents were representative of the 3 ICUs. Most of the respondents were registered nurses (97%) and had a baccalaureate nursing degree (70%). Mean years of nursing experience was 10.5, and mean ICU years of experience was 8.4 years. Although most of the respondents (75%) reported providing oral care 2 or 3 times per day for nonintubated patients, 72% reported providing care 5 times per day or more for intubated patients (Figure 1Go). Reported use of isotonic sodium chloride solution, mouthwash, hydrogen peroxide mixture, and chlorhexidine did not differ significantly between nonintubated and intubated patients (see TableGo). However, reported use of tooth-paste (P < .001) and a toothbrush (P < .001) was significantly greater in nonintubated patients, and use of a sponge toothette was significantly greater in intubated patients (P < .001). Nurses’ mean rating (1 as lowest to 100 as highest) of oral care priority was 53.9 (Figure 2Go).



View larger version (10K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1 Nurses’ report of frequency of providing oral care. Percentage of responses grouped by frequency with which oral care was delivered. Responses to question, " How often do you generally perform oral care for the nonintubated patient? " are shown in dark bars; responses to "How often do you generally perform oral care for the intubated patient?" are shown in light bars.

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Nurses’ report of frequency of use of oral care products

 


View larger version (9K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 2 Nurses’ ratings of importance of oral care. Percentage of nurses rating oral care priority by decile. Priority score indicates the response on a 100-mm analog scale to the question, "Considering all interventions you complete for critically ill patients, rate the priority of oral care interventions on a scale of 1–100 (1 being low priority, and 100 being highest priority) ."

 
Space was provided for nurses to write in comments about oral care. Nurses generally acknowledged the importance of oral care, with comments such as, "We make an effort to do q4h [every 4 hours] mouth care because we know how it improves patient outcomes," and "I love a clean mouth for myself and my patients." Nurses cited difficulties with providing mouth care in the ICU, as noted in the following comments: "Mouthcare is very important to my care unless patient is unstable or no time for it." "Frequency of mouth care is dependent on acuity with nursing staff levels." "We do the best we can, considering patient acuity and time." "Mouth care is done more frequently when acuity is less and staff leveling is good."

Medical Record Documentation
Documentation of oral care in the medical record, however, was at marked variance from nurses’ self-reports of provision of oral care. In 170 ICU patients, documentation of oral care in the medical record (checked on flow sheet) during the preceding 24 hours was found 205 times (mean 1.2 times per patient). Application of chlorhexidine was documented in 3 ICU patients, use of nystatin was documented in 5 patients, and use of hydrogen peroxide mixture was recorded in 1 patient.


   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Research Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
ICU nurses may be hesitant to provide oral care to patients who are intubated because endotracheal tubes may limit access to the oral cavity. The fear of dislodging or displacing the tube is also a deterrent.27 Provision of oral care may be affected by the perception that oral care contributes less to patients’ health and well-being (or has lower priority) than other nursing interventions for critically ill patients. Comments by nurses in this project indicated that patients’ acuity and staffing levels were important factors in provision of oral care.

Not all oral care products are optimal. Nurses in this survey indicated frequent use of hydrogen peroxide solution. Hydrogen peroxide removes debris but if not diluted carefully may cause superficial burns. Lemon and glycerine swabs stimulate production of saliva initially but are acidic, causing irritation and decalcification of the teeth and resulting in rebound xerostomia.28–30 Lemon and glycerine swabs were not used by nurses in the current study.

Foam swabs, which are commonly used to provide mouth care to patients unable to do their own care, are effective for stimulation of mucosal tissues but are ineffective in plaque removal28,29,31–34 and most likely do not reduce risk of VAP. Pearson34 reported that in healthy volunteers foam swabs were less effective at plaque removal than was toothbrushing and noted that the efficacy of foam swabs depended on the user’s technique. A survey by Fitch et al35 distributed to the nurses in the medical respiratory ICU revealed that most nurses provide mouth care to patients with a foam swab dipped in either water or mouthwash. The survey reported here, sampling in a variety of ICUs, indicates that the use of foam swabs and mouthwash continues to be a common intervention.

Toothbrushes are more effective in plaque removal and gingival stimulation than are foam swabs,32 and toothbrushes are generally regarded as the best tool for oral care in healthy populations. However, Iacono et al36 noted that the effectiveness of the toothbrush depends on use of the device "in a proper fashion for a sufficient duration of time and with adequate frequency." Our survey results indicate that toothbrushes were not uniformly used in nonintubated patients and were less commonly used in intubated patients. This finding is consistent with previous findings that toothbrushes are less commonly used than foam swabs in providing mouth care to hospitalized patients.28 Pediatric toothbrushes may be easier to use than adult toothbrushes in intubated patients and improve quality of oral care.35

Although nurses’ comments indicate that they value the contribution of oral care to patients’ well-being, data from the medical record indicate that documentation of oral care is not congruent with nurses’ self-reports of their oral care practices. Additional research is needed for the development of optimal oral care interventions for both intubated and nonintubated patients in the ICU.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENT
 
This work was funded by a Virginia Commonwealth University Undergraduate Research Grant to Brooke Ashtiani and Sandra Bryant.

To purchase reprints, contact The InnoVision Group, 101 Columbia, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656. Phone, (800) 809-2273 or (949) 362-2050 (ext 532); fax, (949) 362-2049; e-mail, reprints{at}aacn.org.


   REFERENCES
Top
 Abstract
 Research Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

  1. Fowler EB, Breault LG, Cuenin MF. Periodontal disease and its association with systemic disease. Mil Med. 2001;166:85–89.[Medline]
  2. Scannapieco FA, Papandonatos GD, Dunford RG. Associations between oral conditions and respiratory disease in a national sample survey population. Ann Periodontol. 1998;3:251–256.[Medline]
  3. Scannapieco FA, Mylotte JM. Relationships between periodontal disease and bacterial pneumonia. J Periodontol. 1996;67(10 suppl):1114–1122.[Medline]
  4. Haase EM, Brown AE, Douglas CW, Gwynn JP, Scannapieco FA. Role of oral bacteria in respiratory infection: identification and analysis of a gene (abpA) encoding a major amylase-binding protein in Streptococcus gordonii. Microbiology. 1998;144(pt 5):1223–1233.[Abstract]
  5. Scannapieco FA, Stewart EM, Mylotte JM. Colonization of dental plaque by respiratory pathogens in medical intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:740–745.[Medline]
  6. Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Arden NH, Breiman RF, Butler JC, McNeil MM. Guideline for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control. 1994;22:247–292.[Medline]
  7. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Hance AJ, Montravers P, Novara A, Gibert C. Nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated patients: a cohort study evaluating attributable mortality and hospital stay. Am J Med. 1993;94:281–288.[Medline]
  8. Craven DE, Steger KA, Barat LM, Duncan RA. Nosocomial pneumonia: epidemiology and infection control. Intensive Care Med. 1992;18(suppl 1):S3–S9.[Medline]
  9. Dreyfuss D, Djedaini K, Gros I, et al. Mechanical ventilation with heated humidifiers or heat and moisture exchangers: effects on patient colonization and incidence of nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:986–992.[Abstract]
  10. Craven DE, Kunches LM, Kilinsky V, Lichtenberg DA, Make BJ, McCabe WR. Risk factors for pneumonia and fatality in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986;133:792–796.[Medline]
  11. Torres A, Aznar R, Gatell JM, et al. Incidence, risk, and prognosis factors of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;142:523–528.[Medline]
  12. Levine SA, Niederman MS. The impact of tracheal intubation on host defenses and risks for nosocomial pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 1991;12:523–543.[Medline]
  13. Treloar DM, Stechmiller J. Pulmonary aspiration in tube-fed patients with artificial airways. Heart Lung. 1984;13:667–671.[Medline]
  14. Strong RM, Condon SC, Solinger MR, Namihas BN, Ito-Wong LA, Leuty JE. Equal aspiration rates from postpylorus and intragastric-placed small-bore nasoenteric feeding tubes: a randomized, prospective study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992;16:59–63.[Abstract]
  15. Ferrer M, Torres A, Gonzalez J, et al. Utility of selective digestive decontamination in mechanically ventilated patients. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:389–395.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. Grap MJ, Cantley M, Munro C, Corley M. Use of backrest elevation in critical care: a pilot study. Am J Crit Care. 1999;8:475–480.[Abstract]
  17. Torres A, Serra-Batlles J, Ros E, et al. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:540–543.[Medline]
  18. Fourrier F, Duvivier B, Boutigny H, Rourrel-Delvallez M, Chopin C. Colonization of dental plaque: a source of nosocomial infections in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:301–308.[Medline]
  19. Garrouste OM, Chevret S, Arlet G, et al. Oropharyngeal or gastric colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in adult intensive care unit patients: a prospective study based on genomic DNA analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:1647–1655.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Abele-Horn M, Dauber A, Bauernfeind A, et al. Decrease in nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated patients by selective oropharyngeal decontamination (SOD). Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:187–195.[Medline]
  21. Johanson WG Jr, Seidenfeld JJ, de los Santos R, Coalson JJ, Gomez P. Prevention of nosocomial pneumonia using topical and parenteral antimicrobial agents. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137:265–272.[Medline]
  22. Gipe B, Donnelly D, Harris S. A survey of dental health in patients with respiratory failure [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:A340.
  23. Jenkins DA. Oral care in the ICU: an important nursing role. Nurs Stand. 1989;4:24–29.[Medline]
  24. Nesley L. Mouthcare and the intubated patient: the aim of preventing infection. Intensive Care Nurs. 1986;1:187–193.[Medline]
  25. Hixson S, Sole ML, King T. Nursing strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. AACN Clin Issues. 1998;9:76–90.[Medline]
  26. Anderson J, Lester J. Ask the experts. Crit Care Nurse. February 1999;19:95–96.[Medline]
  27. Treloar DM, Stechmiller JK. Use of a clinical assessment tool for orally intubated patients. Am J Crit Care. 1995;4:355–360.[Abstract]
  28. Adams R. Qualified nurses lack adequate knowledge related to oral health, resulting in inadequate oral care of patients on medical wards. J Adv Nurs. 1996;24:552–560.[Medline]
  29. Holmes S. Nursing management of oral care in older patients. Nurs Times. February 28-March 5, 1996;92:37–39.[Medline]
  30. Aronovitch SA. Oral care and its role in WOC nursing. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 1997;24:79–85.[Medline]
  31. Buglass EA. Oral hygiene. Br J Nurs. 1995;4:516–519.[Medline]
  32. DeWalt EM. Effect of timed hygienic measures on oral mucosa in a group of elderly subjects. Nurs Res. 1975;24:104–108.[Medline]
  33. Moore J. Assessment of nurse-administered oral hygiene. Nurs Times. March 1–7, 1995;91:40–41.[Medline]
  34. Pearson LS. A comparison of the ability of foam swabs and toothbrushes to remove dental plaque: implications for nursing practice. J Adv Nurs. 1996;23:62–69.[Medline]
  35. Fitch JA, Munro CL, Glass CA, Pellegrini JM. Oral care in the adult intensive care unit. Am J Crit Care. 1999;8:314–318.[Abstract]
  36. Iacono VJ, Aldredge WA, Lucks H, Schwartzstein S. Modern supragingival plaque control. Int Dent J. 1998;48(3 suppl 1):290–297.[Medline]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Am J Crit CareHome page
A. M. Berry, P. M. Davidson, J. Masters, and K. Rolls
Systematic Literature Review of Oral Hygiene Practices for Intensive Care Patients Receiving Mechanical Ventilation
Am. J. Crit. Care., November 1, 2007; 16(6): 552 - 562.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am J Crit CareHome page
C. L. Cason, T. Tyner, S. Saunders, and L. Broome
Nurses' Implementation of Guidelines for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Am. J. Crit. Care., January 1, 2007; 16(1): 28 - 37.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Journal of the American Dental AssociationHome page
F. A. Scannapieco
Pneumonia in nonambulatory patients: The role of oral bacteria and oral hygiene
J Am Dent Assoc, October 1, 2006; 137(suppl_2): 21S - 25S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am J Crit CareHome page
S. K. Hanneman and G. M. Gusick
Frequency of Oral Care and Positioning of Patients in Critical Care: A Replication Study
Am. J. Crit. Care., September 1, 2005; 14(5): 378 - 386.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am J Crit CareHome page
C. J. Cutler and N. Davis
Improving Oral Care in Patients Receiving Mechanical Ventilation
Am. J. Crit. Care., September 1, 2005; 14(5): 389 - 394.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am J Crit CareHome page
C. L. Munro and M. J. Grap
Oral Health and Care in the Intensive Care Unit: State of the Science
Am. J. Crit. Care., January 1, 2004; 13(1): 25 - 34.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Respond to This Article
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Right arrow Take the CE Test
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Grap, M. J.
Right arrow Articles by Bryant, S.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Grap, M. J.
Right arrow Articles by Bryant, S.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS